State of Contiecttcut 



REPORT 



OF 



The Connecticut Agricultural 
Experiment Station 

NEW HAVEN, CONN. 

INHERITANCE IN CORN 

BEING PART VI OF THE ANNUAL REPORT OF 1911 

JUNE, 1912 

CONCLUSION 



ilNi*^^ 



ih. . it9 









PART VL 



INHERITANCE IN CORN. 

By H. K. HAYES. 

Introduction 

For the last six years this Station has been studying the inheri- 
tance of corn characters, and in 191 1 a technical bulletin was 
published on the subject. The purpose of this paper is to state 
as clearly as possible some of our results which have practical 
value to corn growers and breeders in two different particulars. 

First, a large number of corn varieties are grown in Con- 
necticut and often several of them on the same farm. In spite 
of usual precautions, slight accidental crossings between varieties 
take place which cause serious embarrassment to growers of seed 
corn and plague everyone who wants to raise corn which is 
uniform in appearance. In the following pages is stated what 
can be done to detect and cull out the accidental hybrid seed. 

Second, many more or less successful attempts have been and 
are being made to develop new hybrid varieties which shall com- 
bine desirable qualities from both parents. Accurate knowledge 
of the way in which these desirable qualities are inherited will 
simplify operations and prevent disappointment. 

The Formation of the Seed 

Following the general rule, seed corn can only be produced by 
a union of male and female elements. The tassels and silks of 
corn, which are the male and female reproductive organs, are 
borne on widely separated parts of the plant. Each thread of silk 
grows from a spot on the cob where the kernel is to be and where 
the female cells are produced. The office of the silk is to collect 
the pollen grains which are formed in the tassel. A mature 
pollen grain falling on a mature silk germinates and sends out 
a tube which, guided by the silk, reaches the ovary. Through 
this tube two male cells pass, and on reaching the female cells, 



4o8 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, IQII. 

unite with them. One unites with the egg cell to form the 
embryo or undeveloped plant and the other fuses with a second 
female cell to form the endosperm of the seed. This endosperm 
is the surrounding tissue in which the food material is stored. 
The embryo of the corn seed is the germ or chit, the rest of the 
seed within the outer covering is the endosperm. 

The fusion of the cells just described, called fertilization, is at 
once followed by rapid growth and the production of a seed. 
When the pollen comes from the same plant which bears the silk, 
there is "self-fertilization ;" when it comes from another plant of 
the same variety there is "cross-fertilization;" when from 
another variety there results "hybridization." As a commercial 
variety of corn is generally composed of many types in a complex 
hybrid condition, due to constant inter-crossing, there is no exact 
distinction between "cross-fertilization" and "hybridization" as 
applied to corn. 

The Law of Heredity 

The transmission from one generation to another of the promi- 
nent features, such as sweet, dent and flint characters, color of 
seeds, etc., which distinguish varieties of corn, follows what is 
known as Mendel's Law of Heredity, which may be illustrated 
from his own work with peas. For this discussion Darbishire's 
book, "Breeding and the Mendelian Discovery," has been freely 
used. 

The edible pea may be divided into two classes, the tall and 
the dwarf. One difference between them is in the length of the 
internodes, i. e., the sections of the stem between two nodes or 
joints where the leaves are attached. This causes the tallness or 
the shortness of the whole plant. 

Moreover, the pea is a normally self-fertilized plant, i. e., seed 
is formed by the union of male and female cells of the same 
plant. 

This seed, if from a tall race, will produce nothing but tall 
plants, and if from a dwarf plant will yield dwarfs only. 

Now, if a cross is made between a tall and a dwarf race by 
applying the pollen of one variety to the stigma or female recep- 
tive organ of another variety, and the seeds produced by this 
"cross" are sown, nothing but tall plants will appear. These are 
no shorter than the pure tall plants and in many cases they are 



THE LAW OF HEREDITY. 409 

somewhat taller because of the increased vigor due to crossing 
two pure races. 

When we sow the seed from the above hybrid generation we 
obtain tall and dwarf plants in the ratio of about three tall to 
one dwarf in every four. These dwarfs, if self-fertilized, will 
all breed true as to height in later generations, but while some of 
the tall plants will breed true others will again give tall and 
dwarf plants in the ratio of three to one. 

These facts are easily explained by the present Mendelian 
theory, which is not essentially different from Mendel's inter- 
pretation. A plant or animal does not transmit its characters 
in a bunch as it were, as if the entire organism were the unit, 
but its various characters are inherited separately. 

Each reproductive cell, whether in pollen or ovule of the tall 
pea, contains a factor, structure or unit quality of tallness which 
we may represent by T. A union of male and female cells of tall 
peas will be a union of reproductive cells, all of which contain T, 
and a tall race will result. Each such reproductive cell of the 
dwarf pea lacks the structure or factor which produces the tall 
race. This lack may be represented by t, and from their fusion 
only dwarfs result. 

But when the tall and dwarf races are crossed, each seed is 
the result of a union of reproductive cells, the one from the tall 
race containing T and the one from the dwarf race containing t. 
But the tall character in this generation is "dominant;" i. e., 
it conceals or masks the other. Such characters as tallness and 
dwarfness are said to be contrasted or allelomorphic pairs, and 
as only tall plants are produced when tall and dwarf are crossed, 
the tall character is said to be a dominant one and the dwarf 
character a recessive condition. 

Now, if all the seeds of this hybrid are planted and their blos- 
soms self-fertilized, we may explain the conditions as follows : 
Half of the male cells are supposed to contain only T, the factor 
for tallness, and half only t, the factor for dwarfness. The 
same is true of the female cells. We may represent the situation 
and the resulting progeny thus : 





T- 


-^T 




Male 


T^ 


><T 


Female 


cells 


t " 


cells 




t- 


— > t 





41 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

From the diagram it appears that one-quarter of the resulting 
seeds have received T from both pollen and ovule, or (T + T). 
They can produce only tall progeny. One-quarter have received 
t from both, or (t -j- t) and can produce only dwarf progeny. 
The remaining half of the seeds are like those from which they 
themselves were grown, i. e., they are formed by a union of cells, 
one of which contains T and the other t, or (T -f t). But when 
the dominant factor T is received from only one reproductive cell 
the plant when grown is a tall one and can not be distinguished 
from the pure tall race. 

The only method of distinguishing between the pure tall and 
hybrid tall plants is by breeding from them. The pure tall plants 
will, of course, give only tall progeny, while the hybrid tall 
plants will again give both tall and dwarf plants. 

The first important fact which this illustrates is that the 
external appearance of a plant is not a correct criterion of its 
breeding qualities, but that the contents of the reproductive cells 
are the important feature, and that in most cases the only way of 
determining these contents is to breed from them. 

We should also note that only one of the factors of a con- 
trasted pair is found in a single reproductive cell. Thus, in the 
case above described no reproductive cell consisted of a mixture 
of the factors for both tall and dwarf plants but contained either 
the one or the other. 

The fact that there is often a dominance of one condition over 
another in the first hybrid generation of a cross is of especial 
importance to the corn growers of Connecticut. A partial report 
of this matter was given in 1907 by East. 

Dominance of Characters in Corn Breeding 

After crossing, the characters here given behave in the follow- 
ing manner : 

Flint or Dent is dominant to Sweet. 
Yellow " " "No Yellow or White. 

Purple " " " No Purple or White. 

Red Pericarp " " " No Red or White. 

Red Cob " " " No Red or White. 



FLINT OR DENT — SWEET CROSSES. 4II 

Flint or Dent — Sweet Crosses 

If a sweet corn is used as the female parent and is crossed 
with a starchy corn, either a flint or a dent, there result hybrid 
seeds which cannot be distinguished from seeds of the starchy 
parent. This result is due to the fact that the endosperm of 
corn is hybridized as well as the embryo. (See The Formation 
of the Seed.) 

A microscopic study of the starch grains of sweet corn shows 
them to be small, angular and abortive, while those of a flint 
or dent are much larger and are circular in outline. Something 
is evidently introduced by the pollen of the starchy corn which 
enables the sweet variety to proceed in its starch development 
and form seeds which are not visibly different from the starchy 
parent. 

If, on the other hand, starchy corn, flint or dent, is used as 
the female parent and is pollinated with sweet corn pollen, no 
immediate effect is apparent. The starchy corn already contains 
the dominant factor and masks or hides the presence of the sweet 
character which is recessive. 

The practical use of these facts is as follows : 

No extreme care need be used in isolating sweet com plots 
from field corn, as any crossing on the sweet corn shows in the 
first year, and at harvest the hard starchy kernels can be dis- 
carded. The sweet kernels, those with a wrinkled appearance, 
when grown v/ill always produce sweet corn. 

But, on the other hand, as there is no immediate visible change 
when field corn is pollinated with sweet corn pollen, there is no 
method of detecting and rejecting the hybrid kernels. The field 
com seed should always therefore be saved from that part of the 
field which is farthest from the sweet com plot. 

Sometimes seeds of a semi-starchy nature appear in sweet corn 
varieties. In a study of the inheritance of starchy-sweet crosses 
a few ears of this nature were met with. Semi-starchy seeds 
have also been mentioned as occurring in a number of pure sweet 
races by Halsted of New Jersey. To determine the inheritance 
of this peculiarity, the most starchy and most sweet kernels were 
selected from a self-fertilized semi-starchy ear. The result of 
two years' selection of the most wrinkled kernels for planting 
produced ears nearly all of which were of a pure sweet nature. 
No ears have as yet been produced of a pure starchy nature. 



412 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II, 

Such semi-starchy ears are often encountered by sweet corn 
canning factories and give much trouble. Selection of the most 
wriukled seeds for planting will assist in eliminating the semi- 
starchy types. 

Yellow — White Crosses 

Our results indicate that in many cases there are two separately 
inherited characters for yellow color in corn, either of which 
can produce this color. This fact, although of great scientific 
in^pprtance, does not materially change the methods of producing 
pure seed of either the yellow or white variety. The color which 
produces the yellow varieties of corn is an endosperm character. 
When white com is crossed with pollen from a yellow variety 
the resulting progeny always has a yellow color, although it is 
sometimes lighter than the pure yellow. If the white corn plot 
is not completely isolated from the yellow variety some hybrid 
seeds will be produced. On saving the white corn seed, those 
seeds which are hybrid can be detected by their yellow color and 
removed, with the assurance that when nothing but white seed is 
planted the seed is pure for this character. 

When yellow is the female parent and is crossed with white 
corn the resulting seed is yellow. In some crosses the hybrid 
seeds are light yellow, but, on the other hand, some hybrid yellow- 
white seeds are dark yellow, so it is impossible to separate the 
pure yellow from the hybrid yellow seed except by breeding. 
Therefore, yellow corn, when intended for seed, must be grown 
at a considerable distance from white varieties. 

Intentional crossing of two varieties is usually done with the 
idea of obtaining an improved variety by combining the desirable 
qualities of both parents. Suppose a white corn with a large 
stdlk has bfeen crossed with a yellow variety with a good ear 
and that a type has been produced with both these characters 
(large stalk and good ears), but the ears are composed of such a 
heterogeneous mixture of )^ellow and white seeds that they have 
no value as seed corn. The problem is to obtain ears which will 
produce either all white or all yellow seeds. The easiest method 
is to select only pure white seeds for planting, which in turn will 
produce only white corn. If a yellow variety is desired it can 
be most easily produced by planting all yellow seeds and self- 



PURPLE — WHITE CROSSES. 413 

fertilizing a number of ears, i. e., the pollination of the silks of a 
plant by its own pollen grains. This is most easily performed 
as follows : 

Just before the silk appears a bag should be placed over the 
ear and another over the tassel. About five days later, when the 
silk is well showing, the stalk should be bent over and the tassel 
bag carefully removed. This will contain a certain amount of 
yellow dust or pollen which should be carefully dusted over the 
silks, and the ear again covered. After maturity, these hand- 
fertilized ears should be harvested and examined. All ears which 
contain only yellow seeds will produce only yellow progeny. It 
is necessary to self-fertilize a large number of ears so that several 
pure ears may be allowed to cross naturally the following season 
in order not to obtain evil effects from inbreeding. 

Purple — White Crosses 

Only a few races of purple com are grown in Connecticut, of 
which Black Mexican sweet is the best known example, although 
a purple pop variety is sometimes seen in the market. This 
purple color is due to a dye which is present in a single row 
of cells, known as the aleurone layer, which is found just under- 
neath the pericarp or outer hull of the seed. As this layer is 
a part of the endosperm, there is an immediate effect when non- 
purple races are crossed with purple varieties. The conditions, 
however, are different than in the crosses previously mentioned. 

From an analysis of crosses between Black Mexican sweet and 
several non-purple races the following facts have been established. 
The purple color is due to at least two separately inherited 
factors found in the reproductive cells, both of which must be 
present in order to produce a purple condition. By crossing a 
white race which we found to contain one of these factors with 
another white race which contained the other factor, purple seeds 
were obtained. In one cross there was no visible effect in some 
kernels when a non-purple race was crossed with pollen from a 
purple variety. This we explain by the presence of something 
in this race Avhich inhibited the production of purple. These 
facts, however, will not be further discussed here. 

When pure seed of a purple race is desired, it is necessary that 
it be isolated from other corn plots. Of course, when Black 



414 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II, 

Mexican sweet is fertilized with pollen from starchy races, either 
dent, flint, or pop, those seeds which are of a hybrid nature will 
be of a hard starchy condition and can therefore be rejected. 

Non-purple races, of either flint, dent, pop, or sweet, from 
which seed is saved, should not be grown near a purple variety, 
as there is no surety that hybrid seeds can be rejected. All 
kernels showing any purple color will be found to be hybrids and 
by rejecting these the greater part of the hybrid seeds can be 
removed. 

Red Pericarp — White Pericarp Crosses 

The pericarp of corn is the outer hull. It is in this portion of 
the seed that the red color of the common red races of corn is 
found. If a paper bag be placed upon an ear before silking time 
and be removed after the silks have fully developed, thus leaving 
it unfertilized, the places on the ear where the seeds would have 
been formed, had pollination taken place, will be found to consist 
almost entirely of this outer hull or pericarp. This portion of 
the seed is therefore just as much a part of the mother plant as 
its tassels or silks and is not immediately affected by pollination. 
For this reason an ear has either a red pericarp color on all of its 
seeds or on none of them. 

If a seed is soaked for a short time in water this outer hull 
may be easily removed. This red color conceals all other colors 
which may be present in the seed. Thus, an ear of corn may 
contain both yellow and white, or purple seeds, or any of these 
colors in a pure condition, yet if the red pericarp is present these 
facts are obscured. Thus we are further impressed with the 
fact that all of the characters so far discussed are separately 
inherited. 

If a red pericarp corn is crossed with a non-colored race, no 
matter which is the female parent, there will be no immediate 
visible effect. If these hybrid seeds are planted, the crop for 
the following season will consist of all red pericarp ears. If 
these ears are self-fertilized and grown, red and non-red pericarp 
ears will be received in the ratio of three to one. 

Besides this solid red pericarp there are mosaic red, commonly 
called "Bloody Butcher," varieties. This mosaic red is inherited 
as a pattern color. In common with many variegated races of 



RED COB — WHITE COB CROSSES. 415 

plants this condition does not breed true but always gives some 
non-colored and, in some cases, some deep red progeny. There is 
also a pericarp color which varies in intensity due to light condi- 
tions. If the ear is stripped of its husks before maturity all seeds 
are partially covered with red, in other cases the red color is only 
seen as a slight blush on some seeds near the tip of the ear. This 
color is inherited in the same manner as the deep red pericarp 
color. 

As there is no method of detecting a cross between red and 
non-red races, seed of either sort should only be grown in 
isolated plots at some distance from the other variety. 

Red Cob — White Cob Crosses 

The directions for selecting exhibition com, issued by the 
extension department of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 
state that white corn usually has white cobs, that red cobs in 
yellow corn are preferred, while a variation in cob color shows 
a mixture and poor breeding. 

It is not believed that the color of the cob is of any practical 
importance, although for the sake of a uniform appearance a 
"mixture" is not advisable. In a study of a cross between a red 
pericarp, red cobbed variety, and a race which lacked these colors, 
the pericarp and cob colors were coupled in inheritance, i. e., 
when separation took place all red cobs had red pericarps and 
all white cobs had white pericarps. In other cases no coupling 
has been observed and each character is separately inherited. 

The cob color behaves exactly similar to the pericarp color in 
crosses. Red is dominant to white and in the second generation 
there are, on the average, three red cobs to one white. 

In case of a mixture of red and white cobs, or pericarp colors, 
pure races for either the one or the other can be most quickly 
got by self-fertilizing a number of ears, as explained under the 
heading Yellow-White Crosses. All non-colored self-fertilized 
ears for either cob or pericarp will give non-colored progeny. 
Of the self fertilized red ears, one-third will breed true and two- 
thirds will again give a mixture. The breeding nature of these 
can be tested by growing about ten hills of each and noting 
results. The remainder of the seeds from each ear should be 
reserved and all ears which, by test, give only red-eared progeny 
can be used to m.ultiply the variety the following year. 



4l6 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Summary of Crosses Showing Dominance 

In the preceding discussion we have considered the appearance 
of crosses, the production of seed of pure varieties, and the 
inheritance of characters. 

Summing up these results, we find that when a white corn is 
crossed with a yellow variety the resulting seeds are always 
yellow. Likewise when sweet corn is pollinated with starchy 
races (dent, flint, or pop) the resulting seeds are always of a 
starchy appearance. Pure seeds for the characters, sweetness, 
or white color can therefore be told by inspection. When ears 
show a mixture of yellow and white or starchy and sweet 
seeds we may be sure that the white seeds and the sweet seeds 
are pure for these respective characters. Thus no extreme isola- 
tion from other varieties of either sweet or white corn seed plots 
need be practiced, as the crossed seeds can be detected and elim- 
inated. Seed plots in all other cases must be isolated from other 
varieties. 

In case a mixture has been received of yellow and white seeds 
and a yellow race is desired, this can be obtained by planting 
yellow seeds and self-fertilizing a number of ears, as we know 
that all self-fertilized ears which contain only yellow seeds will 
thereafter give yellow progeny. 

When a variety produces some colored and some non-colored 
ears for either cob or pericarp colors, there is no surety that 
either selected color will breed true. As a larger part of the 
seeds of an ear is normally "cross-fertilized" there is a small 
chance of receiving either a red or white ear in which some seeds 
will not be fertilized with pollen from a plant bearing an opposite 
color and, when planted, give a mixture. Pure varieties can be 
most quickly obtained by self-fertilizing a number of ears as 
previously explained under the heading "Red Cob-White Cob 
Crosses." 

It is always necessary to self-fertiHze a number of ears so that 
several pure ears may be allowed to cross naturally the following 
season. 

When attempting to produce an improved variety by crossing 
two types, each of which contains a desirable character, the aim 
of the breeder is to combine both desirable characters in one 
variety. As we have learned, each character is generally sep- 



SUMMARY OF CROSSES SHOWING DOMINANCE. 417 

aratel)^ inherited, although some cases of coupHng have been 
reported in which two or more characters are inherited together. 
The method of inheritance of any character can be determined by 
crossing a variety which contains this character with another in 
which it is either absent or is present in a modified condition and 
by studying the appearance of this character in later generations. 
The knowledge of the manner in which each character is inherited 
enables the breeder to combine desirable features of one variety 
with those of another. 

When the parents differ by two separately inherited characters 
we may illustrate the results as follows : 

Suppose one parent is a yellow sweet corn in which there is 
only one inherited factor for the yellow color and the other 
parent is a white flint corn. As we have seen, yellow is dominant 
to white, and flint or starchiness is dominant to sweetness. Since 
these are endosperm characters, the immediate cross of the above 
parents will be a yellow flint corn. But the following generation, 
if self-fertilized, will consist of ears containing four sorts of 
seeds in the ratio of nine yellow starchy, three white starchy, 
three yellow sweet and one white sweet. The yellow starchy com 
is produced when the factors for yellow and starchiness are both 
present. As both are dominant factors, only a part of the nine 
yellow starchy seeds will breed true. Theoretically, one out of 
every nine will give ears containing only yellow starchy seeds, 
two will breed true for the yellow color but will be hybrid for the 
starchy character, two others will breed true for the starchy con- 
dition but will give both yellow and white seeds, and four will 
again produce ears containing all four sorts of seeds. 

Of the three white starchy seeds, all will breed true to the white 
color, but only one of every three will give pure sta;rchy ears. 
Likewise, of the three yellow sweet seeds, all will give sweet 
progeny, but only one out of every three will give pure yellow 
ears. The white sweet seeds will all breed true, giving only 
white sweet progeny. 

Our parent varieties were yellow sweet and white flint. From 
crossing these varieties two new sorts have therefore been pro- 
duced, namely, white sweet and yellow flint. This cross illus- 
trates what we mean bv a recombination of characters. 



4l8 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Inheritance of Characters Which do not Show Dominance 

From the viewpoint of the improvement of corn by a cross 
between two varieties, each of which contains some desirable 
character, the phenomenon of dominance is of little importance. 
The result desired is to obtain a race which contains both bene- 
ficial characters. 

The following crosses conform to the essential feature of 
Mendel's law, i. e., the separation of characters in the reproduc- 
tive cells of hybrids and their chance recombination — although 
the conditions are of a complex nature. 

After crossing, the characters given below do not show domi- 
nance. The first hybrid generation is intermediate in appearance 
and the second hybrid generation gives both intermediate and 
parent types. 

Crosses between Flint and Dent races. 

Crosses between races which differ in row numbers. 
Crosses between races which differ in height of plants. 
Crosses between races which differ in length of ears. 
Crosses between races which differ in size of seeds. 

Crosses between Flint and Dent 

Flint corn has hard, smooth and oval grains generally nearly 
as broad as long, while dent corn is indented on the top and the 
length of the seeds is much greater than their breadth. The 
characteristic difference between flint and dent is due to the 
amount and position of homy starch in the endosperm. Flint 
seeds have the embryo and soft starch surrounded by the horny 
starch. In dent races the soft starch extends from the center 
to the cap, the sides of the seed being composed of homy starch. 

There is no immediate visible effect when dent and flint races 
are crossed, the character being inherited as a plant character. 
For this reason seed of either sort must be produced in isolated 
plots. Frequently an ear from a flint-dent cross contains both 
indented and flinty seeds, yet selection of either kind for planting 
gives like results. An ear which contains both flint and dent 
seeds is generally a hybrid. 

The first generation of a cross between a flint and dent is of a 
uniform nature and intermediate in appearance. Sometimes this 
generation is more like the flint parent, sometimes more like dent 



CROSSES BETWEEN RACES WITH DIFFERENT ROW NUMBERS. 419 

in appearance and in other cases strictly intermediate. Self- 
fertilized ears of this generation produce a wide range of varia- 
tion the following season, a few ears resembling flint, others 
resembling dent, and the greater part again of an intermediate 
nature. Self-fertilized ears either of the pure dent or pure flint 
type produce pure races when grown, but the intermediates again 
show wide variabilities. In this cross there is often difficulty in 
separating pure dent or pure flint from intermediates, by inspec- 
tion. As in some previous cases, the only sure method of deter- 
mining the breeding nature of an ear is by growing it and 
examining its progeny. 

Crosses between Races which Differ in Row Numbers 

There is a wide range of row classes in corn. The most com- 
mon flint races are eight-rowed sorts and some dent races produce 
as high as thirty-six rows. This character is quite markedly 
affected by conditions ; thus, an eight-rowed flint frequently 
produces some twelve-rowed ears. A sixteen-rowed selection 
which has been inbred for a number of years has a normal fluctu- 
ation of from twelve to twenty rows with a mean value of sixteen 
rows. In pure races these fluctuations, due to environmental or 
physiological conditions, are non-inherited. 

Crosses between races which differ in row numbers are of an 
intermediate nature in the first generation, the range of classes 
being somewhat larger in the second generation than in the first. 
Some of these second generation plants breed comparatively true, 
although the greater part again break up the following year. 

There must be several inherited factors for row classes in corn, 
as different varieties breed true to different row classes. The 
row classes of most commercial varieties of corn can be changed 
by selection and either increased or decreased. This is due to 
the fact that corn is naturally cross pollinated, and a commercial 
variety really consists of a complex hybrid condition. 

Crosses Between Races which Differ in Height of Plants 

Plant height is a complex character and, without doubt, due to 
many inherited factors. Our reasons for this belief are the large 
number of known varieties which differ from each other in plant 
height. In common with other size characters, environmental 



420 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II, 

conditions have the power to greatly modify the height of plants. 
The fluctuations within a pure race are very large and make the 
analysis of the inheritance of such characters almost impossible. 
Some of our experimental races have been constantly inbred for 
a period of six years and are very uniform in appearance. 
Under ordinary field conditions, the difference in height of dif- 
ferent plants of such pure races is often as great as two and a 
half feet. 

Two crosses have been studied between races which differ in 
plant height, both giving similar results. One was a dent-flint 
cross and the other a cross between Tom Thumb pop and Black 
Mexican sweet. The results were as follows : The first genera- 
tion of the cross proved to be as uniform as either parent and 
was somewhat larger than the average of the parents. This 
increased height over the average of the parents is due to 
increased vigor and not to dominance. 

Self-fertilized ears of this first generation, when grown, pro- 
duced a wide range of variability for plant height, embracing 
the range of both parent forms. Of course, it is not to be 
expected that many of these forms will breed true the following 
year, yet selection of forms like either parent will doubtless give 
an approach toward the parental condition. 

Length of Ears and Size of Seeds 

Only one cross between races which differ in ear length has 
been carefully studied. This was between Tom Thumb pop, with 
an ear length of from five to eight centimeters, and Black Mexican 
sweet, with an ear length of from thirteen to twenty-one centi- 
meters. The first generation of this cross had a range of varia- 
tion of nine to fifteen centimeters. This generation was no more 
variable than the parent races, and was of an intermediate ear 
length, although somewhat larger than the average of the parents. 
The second generation was very variable and produced some ears 
which closely approached the parental forms in length. 

The above cross was also used to study the inheritance of 
weight of seeds. The size of the seeds is determined in a large 
measure by the pericarp, which is a mother plant character. For 
this study, twenty-five seeds were weighed from each ear. The 
first generation was intermediate in weight of seeds and no more 



INHERITED DWARF FORMS. 42 1 

variable than the parent forms. The second generation presented 
a wide range of variation. Some short ears produced large 
seeds, while some long ears produced small seeds. 

Summary of Crosses not Showing Dominance 

The preceding crosses do not show the phenomenon of domi- 
nance, yet all behave in a similar manner. The first generation 
of these crosses is of an intermediate appearance and the second 
generation has a range of variation from one parent form to the 
other. Some of these second generation forms will breed true, 
but it is impossible to determine, by inspection, which these are. 
The only method of determining the breeding nature of these 
second generation forms is by row tests. 

Abnormalities 

There are a number of abnormalities of corn which are often 
found in commercial races. These appear to be of two sorts ; 
first, those which arei produced by some unusual environmental 
condition and are non-inherited, and second, inherited abnormali- 
ties. Of these two classes the heritable one is of interest to the 
commercial grower or seedsman because it is important to know 
the quickest method of getting rid of these abnormalities if they 
appear. 

The following abnormalities have been found to be inherited: 

Dwarf forms. 

Divided ears. 

Irregularity of rows of seeds. 

Dwarf Forms 

Dwarfs have appeared several times in our cultures, and in all 
cases but one in strains which have been inbred for one or more 
seasons. Inbreeding, as used here, means the pollinating of the 
silks of a plant by its own pollen grains. 

In one instance, some dwarf plants appeared in a commercial 
culture of Stowell's Evergreen Sweet. A normal plant from this 
culture was inbred and gave both dwarf and normal plants the 
following season. A cross was made between a normal plant and 
a race in which dwarfs had never appeared, which, when grown, 



42 2 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

gave only normal plants, two of which were self-fertilized. One 
of these ears produced only normal plants, and the other gave 
both normal and dwarf forms. 

Several attempts to self-fertilize such dwarfs have proved 
unsuccessful and in one case when a few mature seeds were 
produced they failed to germinate. Emerson of Nebraska suc- 
ceeded in self-fertilizing some similar dwarfs which appeared in 
his cultures and when grown only dwarfs were produced. 

It seems very probable that we are dealing with a condition in 
which normal plants are dominant to dwarfs, as is the case of the 
tall and dwarf peas. The dwarfs which have appeared in our 
corn cultures, unlike dwarf peas, are absolutely valueless. The 
low per cent, of seeds which germinate from strains which pro- 
duce some dwarfs points to the fact that in some cases such 
abnormalities have not been able to develop. 

If dwarfs appear in an otherwise valuable strain they can be 
most quickly eliminated as follows : By hand pollinating a large 
number of ears we may expect to receive one out of every three 
which will give only normal plants. The hand pollinated ears 
should be tested by planting a part of each and reserving the 
remainder of the seeds. The seed from all ears which in this test 
gives only normal plants may be used to develop the strain the 
following season. Such a method should not be used unless the 
strain is a valuable one. 

Divided Ears 

A desirable ear of corn should be cylindrical in form and should 
not have too large a cob, i. e., the proportion of shelled corn to 
cob should be large. 

There are several classes of abnormalities which show different 
degrees of division of the cob. A form with a monstrous, flat- 
tened, and in extreme cases a divided tip, is frequently seen in 
races which have a large number of rows, such as dents and pops. 
At our State Fair this year, one entry for the best six-ear lot of 
yellow dent corn contained one such ear. Such an ear produces 
a large proportion of cob which is valueless and also an ear which 
is hard to shell. 

The above abnormality belongs to the inherited class, although 
environment has the effect of retarding or accelerating its mani- 



INHERITANCE OF IRREGULAR ROWS. 423 

festation. One of our inbred races of dent produces, on the 
average, about two-thirds of its progeny with a flattened ear and 
one-third with both a flattened ear and a divided tip. A cross 
between this strain and a strain with a flattened cob gave, in the 
first generation, about the same per cent, of divided tip ears as is 
produced by the divided tip parent. 

Divided tip is dominant in crosses to normal tip, but the domi- 
nance is not complete. In such cases there is the added difficulty 
of not being able to tell the recessive form from the dominant by 
inspection. Flattened cobs have proved dominant in crosses over 
cylindrical cobs. 

There are different degrees of cob division and in the extreme 
case the cob is grooved and only four rows are produced. 
Although we have not found this four-rowed condition to be 
inherited, there is no doubt of the fact that the tendency to 
division is sometimes inherited. We have often found the same 
pknt producing one ear which is four-rowed and another with 
eight rows. When the tendency to division is an inherited char- 
acter an inspection of the eight-rowed ear showed a tendency 
towards row splitting at the butt of the cob. In some cases we 
found this character to be non-inherited. Any row culture pro- 
ducing aver five per cent, of such ears should probably be 
discarded. 

Irregularity of Rows of Seeds 

The greater part of the ears of our commercial varieties of 
com have regular rows. Sometimes, as we have noted, two or 
more rows are dropped from a part of the ear, but even then the 
rows of seeds are regular and straight. 

Nearly all varieties produce some ears which show irregular 
rows, the kernels being packed closely together on the ear, 
making it almost impossible to count the row number. Such 
irregular ears are undesirable, the seeds presenting differences 
of size and shape which are not conducive to even dropping by 
cornplanters. Regular-rowed ears also present a more attractive 
appearance. 

Country Gentleman sweet corn is an irregular-rowed variety 
which proves that in some cases irregularity of rows is an 
inherited character. Irregular-rowed ears have often appeared 



424 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I91I. 

in our cultures and proved to be non-inherited, in all but one 
case. A self-fertilized, irregular-rowed ear of a white flint strain 
produced thirty-three normal and fifteen irregular ears, while a 
normal self-fertilized ear produced one hundred and twenty-five 
normal and five irregular ears. One of these five irregular ears 
was self-fertilized, and the following year produced fifty-six reg- 
ular ears and one irregular ear. A regular-rowed ear from the 
irregular-rowed strain produced seventy-nine regular and twenty- 
nine irregular-rowed. 

The manner of the inheritance of this character cannot be 
definitely stated, yet the character is an inherited one. Any 
commercial row culture which contains much over five per cent, 
of irregular ears should be discarded to eliminate the undesirable 
character. 

Summary of Results 

Corn is a normally cross-fertilized plant, and for this reason 
a commercial variety is composed of many types. Any variety 
can be made more uniform by selection. The benefit of selection 
seems chiefly due to the elimination of the poorer types, leaving 
only the better sorts. 

The improvement of corn by selection has been thoroughly dis- 
cussed in previous bulletins and will be only briefly mentioned 
here. Bulletin 152 gives directions for producing a breeding 
plot in which each row is grown from a single ear. Each row is 
then harvested separately, the yield and appearance determining 
the value of the selection. Such commercial row cultures have 
been and will continue to be of great value. We should not, 
however, expect too much from such a method. The increased 
yields which have been received by such methods are believed to 
be due to the elimination of undesirable types of which the pre- 
ceding abnormalities are examples. Row cultures are of ines- 
timable value in such work. 

In Bulletin 168 we discussed corn breeding methods and came 
to the conclusion that the growing of first generation hybrids 
would prove beneficial and materially increase corn yields. Some 
varieties will doubtless prove more beneficial for this work than 
others ; however, all investigators agree that crosses between 
highly selected sorts will prove most valuable. 



GENERAL SUMMARY. 425 

It is hoped that the corn growers of Connecticut will not 
discard this article because of its technical nature and the diffi- 
culty of understanding this class of results. The subject of the 
inheritance of plant characters is a complex one, yet the seedsman 
or farmer who applies the known principles of inheritance and 
breeding to his own work will certainly receive a benefit thereby. 



PLATE XXV. 




a, Rhode Island white flint (starchy parent) ; b, Early Crosby (sweet 
parent) ; c, result of immediate cross of a and b, showing dominance 
of the flint type; d, result of planting seeds of c. The result of planting 
starchy seeds of d is shown by e, f, g. The result of planting sweet 
seeds is shown by /;. 



Pr.ATE XXVI. 







a, At left, upper ear, Jllmois low protein dent. Middle ear, immediate 
result of cross between low protein dent and Stowell's Evergreen sweet, 
and lower ear, Stowell's Evergreen sweet. At right, result of planting 
seeds of the hybrid ear. 



.u 



' III n h i U 
n Hill fM I 

n 



It u 

II 1 1 

II » 



b, At left, Rhode Island white flint; at right, Longfellow yellow (lint; 
in center, immediate result of cross between yellow and white flint, show- 
ing dominance of the yellow color. Lower ear is a self-fertilized ear 
grown from hybrid seeds of central ear. 



PLATE XXVII. 



':3W 




a. At left, the color which develops in sunlight; in center, variegated 
color which does not breed true ; at right, common red pericarp. 




b, The second generation of a cross between the pericarp color which 
develops in the light and a white pericarp variety, giving, on the 
average, 3 colored ears to i white. The non-colored ear, if self-fertilized, 
will breed true. One out of every three, on the average, of self-fertilized 
colored ears will breed true. 



PLATE XXVIII. 




a, The first generation of a cross between a red and white pericarp, 
sliowing dominance of the red pericarp. The pericarp has lieen removed 
from two rows of seeds, sliowing a mixture of yellow and white endo- 
sperm colors. 




b, At left, Longfellow flint; at right, Illinois high-protein dent; in 
renter, result of growing a cross between them. 



PLATE XXIX. 




1 

a, The ear above is a self-fertilized dent ear, received from growing 
the hybrid shown in Plate IV, h (frequency about i in lo). Random 
sample of its progeny below. 




b, The ear above is a self-fertilized flint ear, received from i^rowing 
the hybrid shown in Plate IV', b (frequency about i in i6). Random 
sample of its progeny below. 



PLATE XXX, 




a, Tom Thumb pop, showing variation in length of ear. Length is 
given in even centimeters and the number of individuals in each class 
is given below (one-sixth of natural size). 







/.,-ff.i. 


/3 


H 


iS 


lb 


/y 


/s 


/7 


20 


21 


y.Ki. 


3 


11 


u 


;s 


lb' 


7S 


10 


7 


1 



h. Black Mexican sweet, showing variation in length of ear (one-sixth 
of natural size). 



PLATE XXXI. 




i 


7 


b 




ISPI 






!3 


"fSiii 


LervjtW 


lO 


II 


1-: 


14 


/Vo, Va, 






/ 


/I 


/£ 


/+ 


,'7 


? 



a, Variation in length of ear of the first generation of a cross between 
Tom Thumi? and Black Mexican (one-sixth of natnral size). 




b. \ ariation in length of ear of second generation of cross between 
Tom Thnmb and lUack Mexican (one-sixth natural size). 



PLATE XXXII. 




A dwarf, appearing in a commercial culture of Stowell's Evergreen 
sweet, compared with a normal ear of the latter. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Abortion medicine .• 212 

Acetanilid in headache powders 179 

Acid phosphate, analyses of 39 

Alabama (Aletia) argillacea 267, 339 

Aletia argillacea 339 

Alfalfa, notes regarding yield of 237 

bread 212 

meal 227, 250 

American Agricultural Chemical Co. : — 

A. A. C. Co.'s Complete manure with 10% potash 62 

Complete tobacco manure 62 

(Carb.) 62 

Grass and lawn top dressing 62 

H. G. Fertilizer with 10% potash 62 

Tobacco manure 62 

Tobacco starter and grower 62 

Bone meal 46 

Dry ground fish 55 

Fine ground bone 46, 48 

Grass and oats fertilizer 54, 56 

Ground tankage 6 and 30 50 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Castor pomace 27 

Double manure salt 43 

Genuine German kainit 2 

H. G. dried blood 2 

sulphate of potash 2 

Muriate of potash 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Thomas phosphate powder 38 

Bradley's Complete manure for potatoes and vegetables . . 62 

top dressing grass and 

grain 62 

with 10% potash 62 

Corn phosphate 62 

Eclipse phosphate 62 

Farmers' new method fertilizer 62 

Niagara phosphate 62 

Potato fertilizer 62 

manure 62 



428 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Page 
American Agricultural Chemical Co., cont'd: — 

Bradley's X. L. Superphosphate 62 

Church's Fish and potash 62 

Great Eastern General 62 

H. G. Vegetable, vine and tobacco fertilizer 62 

Northern corn special 62 

North Western Fish, bone and potash 62 

Market garden phosphate 62 

Potato and truck guano 2 

10% potato fertilizer 62 

Universal fertilizer 62 

Packers' Union Animal corn fertilizer 64 

Gardeners' complete manure 64 

Potato manure 64 

Quinnipiac Climax phosphate 64 

Corn manure 64 

Market garden manure 64 

Phosphate 64 

Potato . manure 64 

phosphate 64 

Read's Practical potato special 64 

Standard superphosphate 64 

Vegetable and vine fertilizer 64 

Wheeler's Corn fertilizer 64 

Havana tobacco grower 64 

Potato manure 64 

Grass and oats 54-56 

Williams & Clark's Americus Ammoniated bone super- 
phosphate 64 

Corn phosphate 64 

H. G. Special fertilizer . . 64 

Potato manure 58, 64 

Potato phosphate 64 

Royal bone phosphate 2 

Anthracnose of cherries and plums 398, 401 

currants 405 

Ants, how to get rid of 3^6 

Aphiochata nigriceps 328 

Aphis, apple, green 265 

rosy 26s 

woolly 343 

pine 343 

Aphis pomi 265 

sorbi 265 

Apiary inspection 275 

Apple aphis, green 265 

rosy 265 



INDEX. 429 

Page 

Apple aphis, woolly 343 

leaf crumpler 341 

tent caterpillar 342 

Apples, benefits of spraying 366 

candied 202 

details of spraying experiments 376 

immune and susceptible varieties 359 

leafburn 360 

recommendations for spraying 370 

results of two years' experiments 358 

russeting 362 

scald of 363 

spray inj uries 360 

Archips cerasivorana 309 

Armour Fertilizer Works : — 

All soluble 58, 64 

Ammoniated bone and potash 58, 64 

Bidwell's Formula for all crops 58, 66 

Bone, blood and potash 66 

Complete potato 58, 66 

Corn king 66 

Fish and potash 58, 66 

Fruit and root crop special 58, 66 

High grade potato 58, 66 

Market garden 66 

Bone meal 46 

5-35 Tankage 52, 53 

German kainit 43 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Star phosphate 40, 41 

Aspidiotus perniciosus 268 

Atlantic Fertilizer Co. : — 

Atlantic Dissolved phosphate 40, 41 

Atlantic gluten feed 222, 238 

Atomic sulphur 356, 361, 369, 273, 375, 400, 402, 405 

Baker Caster Oil Co. : — 

Pure castor pomace 37 

Barberry hedges, a pest of 292 

Basic slag, analyses of 38 

Basilona imperialis 341 

Beef scrap 231, 254 

Beet pulp, dried 227, 250 

molasses 227, 250 

Berheris canadensis 292 

Thunbergii 292 

vulgaris 292 



43° CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

i' 

Page 
Berkshire Fertilizer Co. : — 

Berkshire Ammoniated bone phosphate 66 

Complete fertilizer 66 

Grass special 58, 66 

Long Island special fertilizer 66 

Potato and vegetable phosphate 66 

Tobacco special (carb.) 66 

Ground bone 46 

Black knot of cherries and plums 399 

Blatchford's calf meal 229, 252 

Blissus leucopterus 265 

Boardman, F. E. : — 

Boardman's Complete for potatoes and general crops 66 

Bohl, Valentine : — 

Self recommending fertilizer 46 

Bone, method of valuation 7 

manures, analyses of 47 

Bordeaux mixture 350, 361, 362, 369, 397 

Bowker Fertilizer Co. : — 

Bowker's Bone and wood ash fertilizer 66 

Complete alkaline tobacco grower 66 

(carb.) 66, 82 

Corn phosphate 66 

Early potato manure 66 

Farm and garden phosphate 66 

Fisherman's brand fish and potash 66 

Gloucester fish and potash 66 

Highly nitrogenized mixture 2 

Hill and drill phosphate 66 

Lawn and garden dressing S8, 66 

Market garden fertilizer 59, 66 

Potato and vegetable fertilizer 66 

phosphate 68 

Special crop grower 2 

Sure crop phosphate 68 

Tobacco starter 68 

Stockbridge Special complete manure for corn and all grain 

crops 68 

Special complete manure for potatoes and 

vegetables 68 

Special complete manure for seeding down, 

permanent dressing and legumes 59, 68 

Special complete manure for tobacco 68 

Special complete manure for top dressing and 

for forcing 59, 68 

Bowker's Dry ground fish 55 



INDEX. 431 

Page 
Bowker Fertilizer Co., cont'd: — 

Bowker's Fresh ground bone 46 

Market bone 46 

Pure unleached Canada hardwood ashes 93) 94 

Tobacco ash elements 59. 68, 82 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Muriate of potash 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Brandy 212 

Brewers' grains, dried 227, 248 

Brown rot of cherries and plums 402 

Browntail moth, checking the spread of the 281 

work, Killingly 285 

Pomf ret 284 

Putnam 283 

Thompson 282 

Woodstock 284 

Buckwheat products 225, 248 

Buffalo Fertilizer Co. : — 

Buffalo Celery and potato special 68 

Farmers choice S8, 68 

Fish guano 68 

H. G. Manure 68, 82 

New England special 68 

Tobacco producer 68 

Top dresser 60, 68 

Vegetable and potato 68 

Bone meal 46 

Ground bone 46 

Lime-kiln ashes 91 

Tankage 49, 50 

Butter and butter substitutes 195, 211 

Buttermilk 210 

Cocoa butter 163 

Camphor liniment 162, 205 

Castor pomace, analyses of 37 

Chermes pinicorticis 343 

pinifolicB 343 

Cherries, experiments in spraying 398 

recommendations for spraying 404 

Cherry tent-maker 309 

tortrix 309 

Chili sauce 1 10 

Chittenden, The E. D., Co. : — 

Chittenden's Complete tobacco and onion grower 68 

Connecticut tobacco grower 68 

Fish and potash 68 



432 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Page 
Chittenden, The E. D., Co., cont'd: — 

Chittenden's Potato and grain 70 

manure 60, 70 

Tobacco special 70 

Chocolate 102 

methods of analysis of 109 

milk 108 

sweet 104 

Chop feeds 228, 250 

Chrysanthemum leaf-miner 342 

Chrysopa 289 

Cicada, appearance of the periodical 2^6 

Cider 112 

Clark Seed Co., The Everett B. :— 

Clark's Special mixture for general use 58, 70 

10% brand 58, 70 

Clisiocampa americana 342 

Cob meal 225, 246 

Cocoa 114, 195 

Cocoas, misbranded 124 

Cod liver oil, methods of analysis of 170 

wine of the extract of 171 

emulsions 163, 205 

Coe-Mortimer Co. : — 

E. Frank Coe's Celebrated special potato fertilizer 60, 70 

Complete manure with 10% potash 70 

Gold brand excelsior guano 58, 60, 70 

H. G. Ammoniated bone superphosphate . . 70 

New Englander corn and potato fertilizer 60, 70 

Red brand excelsior guano 60, 70 

Tobacco and onion special 70 

Peruvian Tobacco fertilizer 70, 82 

Vegetable grower 60, 70 

XXX Pure ground bone 46 

Muriate of potash 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Thomas phosphate powder 38 

Coffee 211 

cereal 160 

Condensed milk 200 

Connecticut Valley Orchard Co. : — 

C. V. O. Co.'s H. G. complete fertilizer 70, 84 

Cooper's Fertilizer, Peter: — 

Peter Cooper's Pure bone dust 46 

Copidosoma truncatella 328 

Corn, see Maize. 

and cobmeal 225 



INDEX. 433 

Page 

Corn and oat feeds 228, 250 

breeding, dominance of characters in 410 

crosses between races differing in height of plants 419 

having different row number 419 

of flint and dent varieties 418 

or dent with sweet varieties of 411 

purple and white varieties of 413 

yellow and white varieties of 412 

having red cob, crosses with varieties having white cob . . . 415 

pericarp, crosses with varieties having white 

pericarp 414 

feed 225 

inheritance in 407 

of crosses not showing dominance 418 

dwarf forms of 421 

divided ears 422 

irregularity of rows of 423 

length of ears and size of seeds 420 

summary of crosses showing dominance 416 

Cotton hull ashes, analyses of 92 

moth 267, 339 

seed feed meal 221, 238 

meal 220, 238 

analyses of 25 

Cracker waste ' 232 

Cream 127, 195, 210 

of tartar 160, 196 

Currant worm 405 

Currants, anthracnose of 405 

the spraying of 405 

Cutworm food 217 

Cylindrosporium Podi 398 

Cyllene rohinice 345 

Dairy feeds 229, 252 

Diabetic foods. See gluten preparations. 

Digestibility of feeds 233 

Digestible nutrients purchasable for one dollar 234 

Dioryctria abietella 341 

Dissolved rock phosphate, analyses of 39 

Distillers' grains, dried 227, 250 

Dominance of characters 409 

Dried blood, analyses of 24 

Drug products, report on 162 

Egg, dried 212 

Eldredge, T. H. :— 

Eldredge's Special fish and potash fertilizer 70 

superphosphate 70 



434 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, IQII. 

Page 

Elm scale 344 

tree food, analysis of 98 

Entomosporium maculatum 396 

Essex Fertilizer Co. : — 

Essex Complete manure for corn, grain and grass 70 

potatoes, roots and vegetables 60, 72 

Fertilizer for grass and top dressing 72 

Market garden and potato manure 72 

Special tobacco manure 72 

Tobacco starter and grower 72 

XXX Fish and potash 72 

Ground bone 46 

Euproctis chrysorrhcea 272, 281 

Euvanessa antiopa 268 

Exhibits of entomological department • 264 

Expenditures of entomological department 259 

Feeding stuffs, abstract of law concerning 219 

Feeds, average composition and digestibility 235 

digestibility of 233 

summary of examinations of 232 

Fertilizer elements, trade values of, in 191 1 6 

Law, summary of I 

Fertilizer Materials Supply Co : — 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Basic slag 39 

Double manure salt 43 

Dry ground fish 55 

Muriate of potash 42, 44 

Tankage 52, 53, 87 

Tuttle's No. 4 corn mixture 72 

Fertilizers, classification of 2 

explanations concerning analyses 3 

mixed, method of valuation of 8 

number entered for sale i 

sampling and collection of 2 

valuation of 4 

Fish 211 

analyses of dry ground and acidulated 54 

Flies, how to get rid of 338 

Flour 211 

Food and drug products, summary of examinations of 215 

products, report on loi 

Forest tent caterpillar 343 

Frisbie, L. T., Co. : — 

Frisbie's Corn and grain fertilizer 72 

Potato manure 72 

Vegetable grower 60, 72 



INDEX. 435 

Page 
Frisbie, L. T., Co., cont'd: — 

Frisbie's Fine bone meal 46 

Ground tankage 50 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Muriate of potash 44, 45 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Fusicladiufu pyrinum 396 

Galerucella luteola 268 

German Kali Works : — 

Kainit 43 

Muriate of potash 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Sulphate of potash 43 

Gloeosporhim Ribis 405 

Gluten feed 224, 244 

meal, analysis of 98 

preparations 134, 196 

Glycerophosphates, elixir of 212 

Gossyparia spuria 344 

Grape j nice 129 

Gymnosporangium Japonicum 274 

Gypsy moth, progress in controlling 277 

work, cost of 280 

Stonington infestation 278 

Wallingford infestation 278 

Hlair wastes, analyses of 98 

Headache preparations 179, 205 

Heredity, the law of 409 

Hickory bark borer 341 

Home mixtures, analyses of 88, 89 

Hominy feed 224, 246 

Horse feeds 228, 252 

Husted's molasses feed 230, 254 

steam cooked feed 229, 252 

Ice cream 136, 195, 21 1 

powders 137 

Ichthyura inchisa 310 

Imperial moth, parasite of 341 

Inspection, apiary 275 

nursery 269 

imported stock 271 

work, summary of entomological 264 

Iodine, tincture of 180 

James, Ernest L. : — 

James' ground bone 46 

Jams 160, 211 

Jtiniperiis chinensis var. compacta 274 



43^ CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II, 

Page 

Juniperus tachikyaku 274 

Kainit, analyses of 43 

Ketchup 196 

Lathromeris cicada 303 

Latreilliniyia bifasciata 341 

Lead arsenate, analyses of 218 

effects of 352, 357 

Lemon extract 196 

Lemonade sugar 201 

Leopard moth 266, 317 

bibliography 334 

summary 337 

Leptinotarsa decemlineata 3H 

Lime, air-slaked, analyses of 89 

and sulphur, self-boiled ...353, 361, 362, 373, 375, 400, 401, 402, 405 

in various forms, analyses of 88, 89, 90 

juice 129 

water 181 

Lime-kiln ashes, analyses of 91 

Lime-sulphur, Blanchard's 352 

Grasselli's 352, 362, 397 

Niagara 353 

Sherwin-Williams 353> 402 

Sterling 353 

Thomsen 353, 362 

Vreeland 353 

spray mixtures 35i 

Limestone, analyses of 88 

Linseed meal 222, 238 

Listers Agricultural Chemical Works : — 

Lister's Ammoniated dissolved bone phosphate 72 

Complete tobacco manure 7^ 

(carb.) 72 

Corn and potato fertilizer 72 

Potato manure 7'^ 

Special grass mixture 72 

10% fertilizer 7^ 

Standard pure bone superphosphate of lime 7^. 

Success fertilizer 72 

3-6-10 for potatoes 72 

Celebrated ground bone and tankage 50 

Litomastix (Copidosoma) truncatella 328 

Liquid manure, analyses of 9° 

Locust, appearance of seventeen-year 266, 296 

borer 345 

Mace ^96 



INDEX. 437 

Page 

Maize 224 

meal 224, 246 

red dog flour 225, 246 

Malacosoma (Clisiocampa) americana 342 

disstria 343 

Malt sprouts 226, 248 

Manchester, E., & Sons : — 

Manchester's Formula 72, 84 

Special 72, 84 

Mapes F. & P. G. Co. :— 

Average soil complete manure 58, 74 

Cereal brand 58, 74 

Complete manure "A" brand 58, 74 

Corn manure 58, 74 

Economical potato manure S8, 74 

Fruit and vine manure 58, 74 

Potato manure 58, 74 

Seeding down manure 74 

Tobacco ash constituents 74 

manure, wrapper brand 74 

starter, improved 58, 74 

Top dresser improved, full strength 74 

half strength 74 

Vegetable or complete manure for light soils 58, 74 

Dissolved bone 74 

Maple leaf scale, woolly 345 

leaf-stem borer 266, 305 

sugar 211 

Alarguerite fly 342 

Marl, analyses of 92 

Mash feeds for poultry 231, 254 

Massaspora cicadina 304 

Melalopha (Ichthyura) inclusa 310 

Meltose 161 

Mendel's law of heredity 408 

Milk 138, 196, 210 

adulterated 139 

Mineola indiginella 342 

Mocha-stone moth, poplar 310 

Molasses 200, 211 

feed, Quaker dairy 229, 230 

Muck, analyses of 97 

National Fertilizer Co. : — 

National Ammoniated bone phosphate 74 

Complete corn and grain fertilizer 74 

grass fertilizer 74 



438 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Page 
National Fertilizer Co., cont'd: — 

National Complete root fertilizer 60, 74 

tobacco fertilizer 74 

Connecticut Valley tobacco grower 74 

Eureka potato fertilizer 74 

Fish and potash 74 

Formula "A" 76 

Market garden fertilizer 76 

Potato phosphate , 76 

XXX Fish and potash 76 

Tobacco special 76 

(carb.) 76 

Soluble bone and potash 54, 56 

Dry ground fish 55 

Ground bone 46, 48 

Natural Guano Co. : — 

Sheep's head brand of pulverized sheep manure 95 

New England Fertilizer Co. : — 

Corn and grain fertilizer 76 

phosphate 76 

H. G. Potato fertilizer 76 

Perfect tobacco grower 76 

Potato fertilizer 76 

Superphosphate 76 

Ground bone 46 

Tankage 2 

Niantic Menhaden Oil & Guano Co. : — 

Bone, fish and potash 76 

Corn and grain fertilizer 76 

H. G. Tobacco fertilizer 76 

Market garden 76 

Potato and vegetable manure 76 

Sheepino natural guano 95 

Acidulated fish guano 55 

Dry ground fish guano 55 

Nitrate Agencies Co. : — 

Peruvian guano 76 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Kainit 43 

Muriate of potash 43 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Sulphate of potash 43 

Nitrate of soda, analyses of 23 

Nitrogen availability, pot experiments on 14 

in mixed fertilizers, solubility of organic 56 

raw materials, cost of 99 



INDEX. 439 

Page 

Nitrogen "inactive" 57 

modified neutral permanganate method to determine 

solubility of 9 

of raw materials, solubility of organic by the alkaline 

permanganate method 12 

solubility of organic 8 

Nitrogenous superphosphates, guaranties of 60 

valuation of 61 

and guanos, analyses of 62-85 

Nitrous ether, spirit of 181, 205 

Nurseries, inspection of Connecticut 269 

Nursery firms receiving certificates in 191 1, list of 270 

stock, inspection of imported , 271 

Oat hulls 226, 248 

Oats ^ 226, 248 

Oil cake feed 222 

Olds & Whipple :— 

O. & W.'s Complete tobacco fertilizer 76 

Corn and potato 76 

Fish and potash 76 

Grass fertilizer 76 

H. G. Potato fertilizer "^d 

Special phosphate 76 

Dry ground fish 55 

Grey pomace 37 

Vegetable potash 46 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Carbonate of potash 45 

Cotton hull ashes 92 

H. G. Sulphate of potash 43 

Lime 90 

Precipitated bone 39 

Tankage 50 

Olive oil 200, 212 

Omphalocera cariosa 294, 295 

dcntosa 260, 263, 267, 292, 294, 295 

Onion maggot 286 

Opium 205 

Orange preparations 129 

sugar 134 

Ortho-arsenite of zinc 346 

Pamphilius persicum 314 

Paprika 146 

methods of analysis of 148 

Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Co. : — 

P. & P. Grain grower 78 

34 



440 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Page 
Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Co., cont'd: — 

P. & P. Plymouth Rock brand fertilizer 78 

Potato fertilizer 78 

grower 78 

Special tobacco grower 78 

Ground bone 46 

Peach sawfly 314 

Peaches, benefits of spraying 374 

details of spraying experiments 391 

recommendations for spraying 376 

results of two years' experiments 371 

spray injury to 372 

Pears, experiments in spraying 396 

recommendations for spraj-^ing 397 

Pcgomyia ceparum 286 

Pepsin 183 

method of testing 185 

Percentage difference, meaning and calculation of 84 

Periodical cicada 296 

Phenacoccus accricola 268, 345 

Phorbia (Pegomyia) ceparum 286 

Phosphates with potash salts, analyses of 54 

Phosphoric acid in raw materials, cost of 100 

Phytomysa chrysarJhemi 342 

Pine aphids, v/oolly 343 

Pissodes strobi 263, 268, 307 

Plowrightia morbosa 399 

Plums, experiments in spraying 398 

recommendations for spraying 404 

Phisia brassic(v 328 

Poplar mocha-stone moth or tent-maker 310 

Porthetria dispar 277 

Potash, analyses of double sulphate of 43 

high grade sulphate of 43 

m.uriate of 43. 44 

analj'^sis of carbonate of ^ 45 

misbranded muriate of 45 

in raw materials, cost of 100 

Potassium iodide, determination of, in extract of sarsaparilla I93 

Potato beetle, Colorado 311 

Poultry feeds 230, 254 

mash feeds 230, 254 

Precipitated bone phosphate, analyses of 39 

Priophorus accricaulis 266, 305 

Protena dairy feed 230, 254 

Pteronus ribesi 405 



INDEX. 441 

Page 
Pulverized Manure Co. : — 

Wizard brand manure 95 

Purina feed 229, 252 

Pyralid 292 

Quinces, experiments in spraying 396 

recommendations for spraying 398 

Quinine pills 188, 210 

Raspberry syrup 129, 196 

Recessive characters 409 

Red dog flour 223, 244 

Relishes 151 

Rhagoletis cingulata 399 

Rosstelia atirantiaca 396 

Rogers & Hubbard Co. : — 

Hubbard's "Bone Base" Complete phosphate 78 

Grass and grain or fruit fertilizer 78 

New mai-ket garden phosphate ... 78 

Oats and top dressing 78 

Potato phosphate 60, 78 

Soluble corn and general crops 

manure 78 

Soluble potato manure 78 

tobacco manure 78 

Pure raw knuckle bone flour 46 

Strictly pure fine bone 46 

Rogers Mfg. Co. : — 

All round fertilizer 78 

Complete corn and onion 78 

potato and vegetable 78 

Fish and potash 78 

H. G. Grass and grain 78 

Oats and top dressing 78 

Soluble tobacco 78 

Tobacco and potato 78 

grower 78 

Tobacco starter 78 

Pure fine ground bone 46 

knuckle bone flour 46 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

H. G. Sulphate of potash 43 

Muriate of potash 43 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Root beer extract 150 

Rum 212 

Rust on juniper from Japan 274 

Rye products 225, 248 

Salad dressing 151 



442 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Page 
Sanderson Fertilizer & Chemical Co. : — 

Kelsey's Bone fish and potash 80, 84 

Sanderson's Atlantic coast bone fish and potash 78 

Corn superphosphate 80 

Formula A 80 

B 80 

Potato manure 80 

Special with 10% potash 80 

Top dressing for grass and grain 80 

Fine ground bone 46, 48 

fish 55 

Muriate of potash 43, 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Thomas slag 38 

Special mixture 4-8-8 84 

Sarsaparilla. extract of 189 

Sauces, table 158 

Schisoneura lanigera 343 

Schreineria seuzera 328 

Schumacher's calf meal 229, 230, 254 

stock feed 230, 254 

Scolytus quadrispinosus 341 

Septoria pyricola 396 

Seventeen-year locust in Connecticut in 191 1 296 

Shay, The C. M., Fertilizer Co. : — 

Shay's Corn fertilizer 80 

Grass fertilizer 80 

Potato manure 80 

Bone 46 

Tankage 50 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Chrysanthemum fertilizer 98 

Muriate of potash 44, 45 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Special mixture 80, 84 

Sheep manure, analyses of 95 

Shoddy waste, analyses of 98 

Shoemaker, M. L., & Co. : — 

"Sv/ift-Sure" Superphosphate for general use 80 

potatoes 80 

truck, corn and onions .. 80 

Bone meal 46 

"Snuff" 210 

Soda, analyses of nitrate of 23 

water 200, 212 

colors 202 



INDEX. 443 

Faee 

Soda water flavors 202 

syrups 200 

Soups, condensed 161 

Sphecius speciosus 303 

Spraj' mixtures, cost of 349 

pumps 348 

Sprayers, gasoline power 348 

Sprays on apples, peaches, etc., tests of summer 347 

Steero Bouillon Cubes 162 

Stock feeds 229, 252 

Sucrene dairy feed 230, 252 

Sulphur and lead arsenate 357, 362, 367, 369 

sprays, Bogart's sulphur compound 355, 362 

One-for-all 355, 362 

Sulfocide 355, 362, 369, 373 

Swift's Lowell Fertilizer Co.: — 

Swift's Lowell Animal brand 80 

Bone fertilizer 82 

Empress brand 82 

Potato manure 82 

phosphate 82 

Perfect tobacco grower 80 

Potato grower 80 

Special corn and vegetable manure 80 

grass mixture 80 

potato fertilizer 80 

Superior fertilizer 80 

Tobacco manure 80 

Ground bone 46 

Nitrate of soda 2 

Tankage, analyses of slaughter house 49, 50 

spurious 52 

method of valuation 7 

Tanner &: Wilcox : — 

Tanner & Wilcox' Reliable potato and garden phosphate . . 82 

Tent caterpillar 342 

Theobroma, oil of 163 

Thomas slag, analyses of 38 

Tibicen septendecini 296 

Tmetocera ocellana 267 

Tobacco ashes, analyses of 95 

stems, analyses of 96 

Totty's carnation fertilizer, analysis of 98 

Trade values of fertilizer elements in 191 1 6 

Unicorn dairy ration 229, 252 

Union grains, Biles' ready ration 229, 252 



444 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Page 

Valuation of bone and tankage, method of 7 

mixed fertilizers, method of 8 

Valuations, explanations concerning 4 

Vanilla extract 202 

Vegetable potash, analysis of 46 

Vinegar 155, 203, 212 

methods of analysis of 157 

Weather conditions, effect on spraying 363 

Wells & Downs : — 

W. & D. Special economical 6-8-5 82 

Wheat and corn feed 227, 252 

cob feeds 228, 252 

bran 222, 238 

feed 223, 242 

middlings 223, 240 

Whiskey 212 

White pine weevil 263, 268, 307 

Wilcox Fertilizer Co. : — 

Wilcox Complete bone superphosphate 82 

Fish and potash 82 

4-8-10 fertilizer 82 

Grass fertilizer 82 

H. G. Fish and potash 82 

Tobacco special 82 

Potato fertilizer 82 

onion and vegetable phosphate 82 

Special superphosphate 82 

Dry ground acidulated fish 54, 55 

fish guano 55 

Ground steamed bone 2 

H. G. Tankage 49, 50 

Pure ground bone 46 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Basic slag meal 38 

H. G. Sulphate of potash 43 

Muriate of potash 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Browning's formula 84 

Fielden's formula i 84 

2 84 

1, grain and potatoes 84 

2, grass 84 

Wine of the extract of cod liver oil 171 

Wirthmore rations 229, 252 

Witch hazel, extract of 194 

Wood ashes, analyses of 94 



INDEX. 445 

Page 
Woodruff, S. D., & Sons :— 

Woodruff's Home mixture 58, 82 

Worcestershire and other sauces 158 

Zeuzera asculi 317 

pyrina 266, 317, 320 

Zinc, ortho-arsenite of 346 

analysis of 2i,7 



« 



v,^ 



INDEX. 439 

Page 

Nitrogen "inactive" 57 

modified neutral permanganate method to determine 

solubility of 9 

of raw materials, solubility of organic by the alkaline 

permanganate method 12 

solubility of organic 8 

Nitrogenous superphosphates, guaranties of 60 

valuation of 61 

and guanos, analyses of 62-85 

Nitrous ether, spirit of 181, 205 

Nurseries, inspection of Connecticut 269 

Nursery firms receiving certificates in 191 1, list of 270 

stock, inspection of imported 271 

Oat hulls 226, 248 

Oats 226, 248 

Oil cake feed 222 

Olds & Whipple :— 

O. & W.'s Complete tobacco fertilizer 76 

Corn and potato 76 

Fish and potash 76 

Grass fertilizer 76 

H. G. Potato fertilizer 76 

Special phosphate 76 

Dry ground fish 55 

Grey pomace ^7 

Vegetable potash 46 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Carbonate of potash 45 

Cotton hull ashes 92 

H. G. Sulphate of potash 43 

Lime 90 

Precipitated bone 39 

Tankage 50 

Olive oil 200, 212 

Omphalocera cariosa 294, 295 

deniosa 260, 263, 267, 292, 294, 295 

Onion maggot 286 

Opium 205 

Orange preparations 129 

sugar 134 

Ortho-arsenite of zinc 346 

Pamphilius persicum , 314 

Paprika 146 

methods of analysis of 148 

Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Co. : — 

P. & P. Grain grower 78 

34 



440 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I91I. 

Page 
Parmenter & Polsey Fertilizer Co., cont'd: — 

P. & P. Plymouth Rock brand fertilizer 78 

Potato fertilizer 78 

grower 78 

Special tobacco grower 78 

Ground bone 46 

Peach sawfly 314 

Peaches, benefits of spra3ang 374 

details of spraying experiments 391 

recommendations for spraying 376 

results of two years' experiments 371 

spray inj ury to 372 

Pears, experiments in spraying 396 

recommendations for spraj'ing 397 

Pegomyia ceparum 286 

Pepsin 183 

method of testing 185 

Percentage difference, meaning and calculation of 84 

Periodical cicada 296 

Phenacoccus acericola 268, 345 

Phorhia {Pegomyia) ceparum 286 

Phosphates with potash salts, analyses of 54 

Phosphoric acid in raw materials, cost of 100 

Phytomyza chrysanthemi 342 

Pine aphids, woolly 343 

Pissodes strobi 263, 268, 307 

Plowrightia niorbosa 399 

Plums, experiments in spraying 398 

recommendations for spraying 404 

Plusia brassiccc 328 

Poplar mocha-stone moth or tent-maker 310 

Porthetria dispar 277 

Potash, analyses of double sulphate of 43 

high grade sulphate of 43 

muriate of 43t 44 

analj'sis of carbonate of 45 

misbranded muriate of 45 

in raw materials, cost of 100 

Potassium iodide, determination of, in extract of sarsaparilla .... I93 

Potato beetle, Colorado 311 

Poultry feeds 230, 254 

mash feeds 230, 254 

Precipitated bone phosphate, analyses of 39 

Priophorus acericaulis 266, 305 

Protena dairy feed 230, 254 

Pteronus ribesi 405 



INDEX. 441 

Page 
Pulverized Manure Co. : — 

Wizard brand manure 95 

Purina feed 229, 252 

Pyralid 292 

Quinces, experiments in spraying 396 

recommendations for spraying 398 

Quinine pills 188, 210 

Raspberry syrup 129, 196 

Recessive characters 409 

Red dog flour 223, 244 

Relishes 151 

Rhagoletis cingulata 399 

Rcestelia aurantiaca 396 

Rogers & Hubbard Co. : — 

Hubbard's "Bone Base" Complete phosphate 78 

Grass and grain or fruit fertilizer 78 

New market garden phosphate ... 78 

Oats and top dressing 78 

Potato phosphate 60, 78 

Soluble corn and general crops 

manure 78 

Soluble potato manure 78 

tobacco manure 78 

Pure raw knuckle bone flour 46 

Strictly pure fine bone 46 

Rogers Mfg. Co.: — 

All round fertilizer 78 

Complete corn and onion 78 

potato and vegetable 78 

Fish and potash 78 

H. G. Grass and grain 78 

Oats and top dressing 78 

Soluble tobacco 78 

Tobacco and potato 78 

grower 78 

Tobacco starter 78 

Pure fine ground bone 46 

knuckle bone flour 46 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

H. G. Sulphate of potash 43 

Muriate of potash 43 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Root beer extract 150 

Rum 212 

Rust on juniper from Japan 274 

Rye products 225, 248 

Salad dressing 151 



442 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

■ Page 
Sanderson Fertilizer & Chemical Co. : — 

Kelsey's Bone fish and potash 80, 84 

Sanderson's Atlantic coast bone fish and potash 78 

Corn superphosphate 80 

Formula A 80 

B 80 

Potato manure 80 

Special with 10% potash 80 

Top dressing for grass and grain 80 

Fine ground bone 46, 48 

fish 55 

Muriate of potash 43. 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Thomas slag 38 

Special mixture 4-8-8 84 

Sarsaparilla, extract of 189 

Sauces, table 158 

Schisoneura lanigera 343 

Schreineria seusera 328 

Schumacher's calf meal 229, 230, 254 

stock feed 230, 254 

Scolytus quadrispinosus 341 

Septoria pyricola 396 

Seventeen-year locust in Connecticut in 191 1 296 

Shay, The C. M., Fertilizer Co. : — 

Shay's Corn fertilizer 80 

Grass fertilizer 80 

Potato manure 80 

Bone 46 

Tankage 50 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Chrysanthemum fertilizer 98 

Muriate of potash 44. 45 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Special mixture 80, 84 

Sheep manure, analyses of 95 

Shoddy waste, analyses of 98 

Shoemaker, M. L., & Co. : — 

"Swift-Sure" Superphosphate for general use 80 

potatoes 80 

truck, corn and onions .. 80 

Bone meal 46 

"Snuff" 210 

Soda, analyses of nitrate of 23 

water 200, 212 

colors 202 



INDEX. 443 

Page 

Soda water flavors 202 

syrups 200 

Soups, condensed 161 

Sphecius speciosus 303 

Spray mixtures, cost of 349' 

pumps 348 

Sprayers, gasoline power 348 

Sprays on apples, peaches, etc., tests of summer 347 

Steero Bouillon Cubes 162 

Stock feeds 229, 252 

Sucrene dairy feed 230, 252 

Sulphur and lead arsenate 357, 362, 367, 369 

sprays, Bogart's sulphur compound 355, 362 

One-f or-all 355, 362 

Sulfocide 355, 362, 369, 373 

Swift's Lowell Fertilizer Co. : — 

Swift's Lowell Animal brand 80 

Bone fertilizer 82 

Empress brand 82 

Potato manure 82 

phosphate 82 

Perfect tobacco grower 80 

Potato grower 80 

Special corn and vegetable manure 80 

grass mixture '. 80 

potato fertilizer 80 

Superior fertilizer 80 

Tobacco manure 80 

Groimd bone 46 

Nitrate of soda 2 

Tankage, analyses of slaughter house 49, 50 

spurious 52 

method of valuation 7 

Tanner & Wilcox: — 

Tanner & Wilcox' Reliable potato and garden phosphate , . 82 

Tent caterpillar 342 

Theobroma, oil of 163 

Thomas slag, analyses of 38 

Tibicen septendecim 296 

Tmetocera ocellana 267 

Tobacco ashes, analyses of 95 

stems, analyses of 96 

Totty's carnation fertilizer, analysis of 98 

Trade values of fertilizer elements in 191 1 6 

Unicorn dairy ration 229, 252 

Union grains, Biles' ready ration 229, 252 



444 CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Page 

Valuation of bone and tankage, method of 7 

mixed fertilizers, method of 8 

Valuations, explanations concerning 4 

Vanilla extract 202 

Vegetable potash, analysis of 46 

Vinegar 155, 203, 212 

methods of analysis of 157 

Weather conditions, effect on spraying 363 

Wells & Downs : — 

W. & D. Special economical 6-8-5 82 

Wheat and corn feed 227, 252 

cob feeds 228, 252 

bran 222, 238 

feed 223, 242 

middlings 223, 240 

Whiskey 212 

White pine weevil 263, 268, 307 

Wilcox Fertilizer Co. : — 

Wilcox Complete bone superphosphate 82 

Fish and potash ' 82 

4-8-10 fertilizer 82 

Grass fertilizer 82 

H. G. Fish and potash 82 

Tobacco special 82 

Potato fertilizer 82 

onion and vegetable phosphate 82 

Special superphosphate 82 

Dry ground acidulated fish 54, 55 

fish guano 55 

Ground steamed bone 2 

H. G. Tankage 49, 50 

Pure ground bone 46 

Acid phosphate 40, 41 

Basic slag meal 38 

H. G. Sulphate of potash 43 

Muriate of potash 44 

Nitrate of soda 23 

Browning's formula 84 

Fielden's formula i 84 

2 84 

1, grain and potatoes 84 

2, grass 84 

Wine of the extract of cod liver oil 171 

Wirthmore rations 229, 252 

Witch hazel, extract of 194 

Wood ashes, analyses of 94 



INDEX. 445 

Page 
Woodruff, S. D., & Sons :— 

Woodruff's Home mixture 58, 82 

Worcestershire and other sauces 158 

Zeusera asculi 317 

pyrina 266, 317, 320 

Zinc, ortho-arsenite of 346 

analysis of 217 



State of Connecticut 

PUBLIC DOOUMEI^T JSTo. 24 



Thirty-fifth Anntml Report 



OF 



The Connecticut Agricultural 
Experiment Station 

Being the annual report for the year ended October 31 

1911 



TRINTED BY ORDET{ OF THE LEGISLATURE 



HARTFORD 

Published by the State 
1912 



publication 

approved by 

The Board of Control. 



THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY 



CONNECTICUT AfiRICDLTURAL EIPERIMENT STATION, 

September 30, 191 1 



BOARD OF CONTROL. 

His Excellency, Simeon E. Baldwin, ex officio. President. 

Prof. H. W. Conn, Vice President Middletown 

George A. Hopson, Secretary Wallingford 

E. H. Jenkins, Director and Treasurer New Haven 

Joseph W. Alsop • Avon 

Wilson H. Lee Orange 

Frank H. Stadtmueller Elmwood 

James H. Webb Hamden 



STATION STAFF. 

Administration. E. H. Jenkins, Ph.D., Director and Treasurer. 

Miss V. E. Cole, Librarian and Stenographer. 

Miss L. M. Brautlecht, Bookkeeper and Stenographer. 
Chemistry. 

Analytical Laboratory. John Phillips Street, M.S., Chemist in Charge. 

E. Monroe Bailey, Ph.D., C. B. Morrison, B.S., 

R. B. Roe, A.B., C. E. Shepard, Assistants. 

Hugo Lange, Laboratory Helper. 

V. L. Churchill, Sampling Agent. 



Proteid Research. 



Botany. 



Entomology. 



Forestry. 



Plant Breeding. 



Buildings and Grounds. 



T. B. Osborne, Ph.D., Chemist in Cliarge. 
Miss E. L. Ferry, A.B., Assistant. 
Miss Luva Francis, Stenographer. 

G. P. Clinton, S.D., Botanist. 

E. M. Stoddard, B.S., Assistant. 

Miss M. H. Jagger, Seed Analyst. 

Miss E. B. Whittlesey, Herbarium Assistant. 

W. E. Britton, Ph.D., Entomologist; also State 

Entomologist. 

B. H. Walden, B.Agr., D. J. Caffrey, B.S., 
A. B. Champlain, Assistants. 

Miss E. B. Whittlesey, Stenographer. 

Samuel N. Spring, M.F., Forester; also State 

Forester and State Forest Fire Warden. 
W. O. Filley, Assistant; also Asst. State Forester. 
Miss E. L. Avery, Stenographer. 

H. K. Hayes, B.S., Plant Breeder. 

C. D. HuBBELL, Assistant. ' 

William Veitch, In Charge. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Officers and Staff iii 

Contents v 

Report of Board of Control ix 

Report of Treasurer xv 

Errata xviii 

Report on Commercial Fertilizers I 

The Fertilizer Law and its Observance i 

Sampling and Collection of Fertilizers 2 

Explanations concerning Analyses and Valuations 3 

The Solubility of Organic Nitrogen 8 

A Modified Method to determine Nitrogen Solubility g 

Solubility of the Organic Nitrogen of Raw Materials 12 

Pot Experiments on Nitrogen Availability 14 

Analyses of Raw Materials chiefly valuable for Nitrogen ... 23 

Raw Materials chiefly valuable for Phosphoric Acid .... 38 

Raw Materials chiefly valuable for Potash 42 

Raw Materials containing Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid 47 

Mixtures of Phosphates with Potash Salts 54 

Nitrogenous Superphosphates 56 

Home Mixtures 86 

Lime in various Forms 87 

Cotton Hull and other Ashes 92 

Miscellaneous Manures and Wastes 95 

Report on Food Products loi 

Chocolate 102 

Chili Sauce no 

Cider 112 

Cocoa 114 

Cream 127 

Fruit Juices 129 

Gluten Preparations 136 

Ice Cream 136 

Milk 138 

Paprika 146 

Root Beer, Relishes, Salad Dressing 150 

Vinegar 155 

Table Sauces and Miscellaneous 158 

Report on Drugs 162 

Camphor Liniment. Cocoa Butter 162 

Cod Liver Oil and other Emulsions 163 

Wine of the Extract of Cod Liver Oil 171 

Headache Preparations 179 

Iodine Tincture. Lime Water 180 



vi CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

PAGE 

Report on Drugs, cont'd. 

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 181 

Pepsin 183 

Quinine Pills and Compound Extract of Sarsaparilla 188 

Extract of Witch Hazel 194 

Food and Drug Products examined for the Dairy Commis- 
sioner 195 

Miscellaneous Foods and Drugs 210 

Summary of Results 215 

Report on Commercial Feeding Stuffs 219 

Law regarding Sale 219 

Oil Seed Products 220 

Wheat Products 222 

Maize Products 224 

Rye and Buckwheat Products 225 

Oat and Barley Products 226 

Miscellaneous Feeds 227 

Proprietary Feeds 228 

Digestibility of Feeds by Ruminants 233 

Average Composition Digestibility and Selling Price of Feeds 233 

Notes regarding the Yield of Alfalfa 237 

Tables of Analyses of Feeds 238 

Analyses of Bean Pods and Straw 258 

Report of the Entomologist 259 

Work of the Department 260 

Entomological Features of 191 1 265 

Inspection of Nurseries and Imported Stock 269 

Inspection of Apiaries 275 

Progress in Controlling the Gypsy Moth 277 

Checking the Spread of the Brown-Tail Moth 281 

The Onion Maggot 286 

The Pyralid 292 

The Seventeen- Year Locust 296 

The Maple Leaf-Stem Borer 305 

Preliminary Tests to Prevent Damage by the White Pine 

Weevil 307 

The Cherry Tent Maker 309 

The Poplar Mocha-Stone Moth 310 

The Colorado Potato Beetle 311 

The Peach Saw Fly 314 

How to get rid of Ants 316 

The Leopard Moth 317 

How to get rid of Flies 338 

Brief Insect Notes 339 

Report on Tests of Summer Sprays on Apples, Quinces, etc 347 

Types of Sprays used 349 

General Results with Apples 3S8 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vll 



Report on Tests of Summer Sprays on Apples, etc., cont'd. 

Recommendations 370 

General Results with Peaches 371 

Recommendations 375 

Details of the Experiments 376 

Experiments with Pears and Quinces 396 

Cherries and Plums 398 

Currants 405 

Inheritance in Corn 407 

Index 427 



Report of the Board of Control 

OF 

THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT 

STATION. 

To His Excellency, Simeon E. Baldivin, Governor of Connecticut: 

The Board of Control of The Connecticut Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station herewith respectfully submits its report for the 
year ending November i, 191 1. 

The following minute regarding William Henry Brewer, for 
many years a member of this Board, was adopted by the Board 
at its meeting on December 22, 1910: 



Professor William H. Brewer, Ph.D., LL.D., a member of this Board for 
thirty-three years, died at his home in New Haven on November 2, 1910. 
His manifold work as geographer, botanist, sanitarian and teacher needs 
no recital here. 

As one of the pioneers in bringing agricultural science to the knowl- 
edge of farmers and teaching its value for practical ends, his name 
will be held in grateful remembrance by the farmers of this State. 

Born and brought up on a farm and having personal experience of 
farm work, he began his studies in Yale College with the object of 
fitting himself for the life of a farmer. Drawn by his tastes for natural 
science and eagerness to follow up the studies he had begun, he finished 
the regular course and graduated at the Sheffield Scientific School in 
1852. After studying abroad at Paris, Heidelberg and Munich, serving 
as a college professor at Washington College, Pennsylvania, and the 
University of California, and working for four years on the survey of 
California, he returned to the Scientific School of Yale as professor of 
agriculture in 1864, and held that position until his retirement as professor 
emeritus in 1903. 

He was professor of agriculture not onlj^ within college halls but 
everywhere in the State. His intimate acquaintance with practical farm- 
ing, his scientific attainments, the wide range of his knowledge and of his 
interests, together with his broad common sense, made him a welcome 
and effective speaker at farmers' gatherings everywhere. 

He was earnest and influential in establishing this Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station and he served it wisely and effectively until he died. His 
last public act was to attend a meeting of this Board only a few days 
before his death. 



X CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Probably no one in the University during the last fifty years was 
called on so often and so variously for public service outside of the 
institution as Professor Brevi^er, and in all of it he was faithful, tactful 
and efficient. 

The Members of this Board wish here to record their sense of 
personal loss, their appreciation of his rare qualities as a friend and 
adviser, and of his long and effective labors for the advance of 
agriculture. 

It is Ordered that this minute be entered on the records of this Station 
and that a copy be sent to Professor Brewer's family. 



A detailed account of the work of each of the several depart- 
ments of the Station will appear in the reports of individual 
members of the staff, which are now in preparation. 

We therefore only call attention to certain facts relating to 
the Station welfare which will not be discussed in those 
publications. 

The General Assembly, at the January session of 1911, appro- 
priated $6,500 to this Station to cover the loss caused by the fire 
of January 10, 1910. 

Chapter 192 of the Public Acts of 191 1 provides for the 
printing of an annual report of this Station, which had been the 
practice for thirty years, in place of the biennial report required 
by statute during the last four years. 

Chapter 134 of the Public Acts of 191 1 requires that the net 
contents of all packages of food products shall be plainly marked 
on the outside in terms of weight, measure, or numerical count, 
and that the director of this Station, with the Dairy and Food 
Commissioner, shall establish rules and regulations as to the 
reasonable variations and allowances which shall be permitted. 
No penalty is to be enforced prior to eighteen months from 
the passage of this Act. 

Chapter 274 forbids adulteration of turpentine or spirits of 
turpentine and makes it the duty of the Dairy and Food Com- 
missioner and the director of this Station "acting jointly" to 
enforce this law. To the Commissioner alone is given the right 
of inspection. This statute, unlike any other relating to adultera- 
tion, makes the Station jointly responsible for enforcing the 
law. This is a departure from previous policy. Hitherto the 
Station's responsibility has been limited to testing suspected 



REPORT OF THE BOARD OF CONTROL. XI 

articles, reporting its findings to the Commissioner, and giving 
expert evidence in court when required. 

There have been no changes of importance in the Station staff 
except that Mr. Walter O. Filley has been appointed assistant 
state forester, an office created by the last General Assembly, 
and Mr. A. B. Champlain, an assistant in the entomological 
department, resigned October i, 191 1, to accept a position in 
the State Laboratory of Economic Zoology of Pennsylvania. 

During the fall, an exhibit illustrative of the several depart- 
ments of the Station work was made at six agricultural fairs 
and also at the Station grounds in New Haven, the last espe- 
cially for the teachers of the State who were attending a 
convention at the time in New Haven. Members of the Station 
staff were in constant attendance at all these exhibits to explain 
them and to answer questions. This involved the almost 
complete suspension of our regular laboratory work for nearly 
six weeks, which was a serious interruption. The large attend- 
ance, however, and the interest shown in the Station work as illus- 
trated by the exhibits convince us that this is one of the most 
effective ways of diffusing information regarding our w^ork 
among the farmers of the State. 

The Station has bought a farm of twenty acres at Mount 
Carmel, not far from the city, including a small house for the 
caretaker, has set out an orchard of apples and peaches for 
experiment, has begun an experiment on the effect both on the 
crop and on the soil of fertilizers and manures, and another, on 
the handling of an old and neglected orchard. 

At the Centerville field, which will be given up in the spring 
of 191 2, we have over 800,000 white pine seedlings, three years 
old, which are being sold at cost to citizens of this State for 
forest planting. 

On this field also com and tobacco breeding work, as well 
as other experiments, has been carried on during the present 
year. Hereafter this work will be concentrated on our own 
fields at Mount Carmel. 

The Station receives one-half of the so-called Adams Fund 
which, by Act of Congress and the rulings of the Secretary of 
Agriculture, must be used wholly for scientific research, prefera- 
bly in a small number of "projects" approved by the Office of 



XU CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

Experiment Stations. The Station's share of this fund is 
devoted to two projects: a study of the laws of inheritance in 
maize and tobacco, and a study of the composition, structure and 
relative nutritive value of the vegetable proteins. This last pro- 
ject, which has engaged Dr. Osborne's time for many years, 
now receives very substantial aid from the Carnegie Institution 
of Washington. 

Bulletin 167, Inheritance in Maize, gives an account of five 
years' study of the subject, and Bulletin 168 is a discussion of 
the facts discovered which may be of immediate practical 
account. The results of work on the other project are published 
in physiological and chemical journals and in monographs of the 
Carnegie Institution and are not further noticed in this report. 

During the year there have been issued parts of a biennial 
report aggregating 512 pages with 21 plates in editions of 10,000 
copies, and three bulletins aggregating 174 pages with 30 plates. 
Nine thousand five hundred copies of one of these were printed, 
of another three thousand, but of the third, which was so tech- 
nical as to be of value chiefly to investigators, only one thousand 
were printed. The spray calendar has also been revised to 
include the results of recent work and is mailed as requested. 

Fifty-one addresses have been given by members of the staff 
at farm institutes, field meetings, granges and other gatherings 
of farmers, and the Station correspondence has involved the 
writing of more than 9400 letters and manuscript reports. 

The following summary shows in brief the departments of 
the Station work and the special directions it has taken: 



Entomological Department. 

Inspection of all the nurseries in the State and of imported 
nursery stock to prevent distribution of insect and fungous pests ; 
inspection of apiaries on request or complaint ; gypsy moth con- 
trol work at Stonington and Wallingf ord ; . search for the brown- 
tail moth and destruction of its winter nests in northeastern 
Connecticut; studies of life-histories of certain insects, prepara- 
tion of exhibits; and publications in various journals on entomo- 
logical subjects ; also cooperation with the botanical department 
in the study of summer sprays, which is described below. 



REPORT OF THE BOARD OF CONTROL. Xlll 

Botanical Department. 

The preparation of artificial cultures of many fungi, most 
of them of economic importance, for purposes of investigation; 
studies on the oospore production of the potato blight in arti- 
ficial cultures and the relation of media to the stages and char- 
acter of growth of fungi in artificial cultures ; publication of , 
papers on botanical subjects; studies in the field of the chestnut 
blight, calico of tobacco and peach yellows ; tests of Millar's 
Cream muskmelon; and spraying experiments with melons, 
cucumbers and potatoes. 

In cooperation with the Entomological Department, very 
extensive and careful tests have been made to determine the 
comparative value of the various summer sprays on apples, 
peaches, pears, plums, cherries and some other fruits. The tests 
were made in thirteen orchards and involved the individual 
examination of 93,000 apples and about 25,000 peaches. 

Seed Testing. 

Tests of purity and vitality of field and garden seeds and 
identification of weed seeds for farmers and dealers ; and studies 
of methods of seed testing. 

Forestry Department. 

The care of the three Station nurseries, containing about 
1,100,000 young trees for forest planting; care of the Station 
forest plantations, including forest planting, cleaning out worth- 
less species and liberation cutting; a test of basket willows; a 
demonstration planting of red and white pine at Putnam Memo- 
rial Camp Ground; inspection of State forests and destruction 
of pine weevil ; making fire lines and improvement thinning at 
the Portland forest ; the careful gathering of statistics of the 828 
forest fires of the year which caused damage amounting to more 
than $235,000. New and desirable legislation has been secured 
regarding forest fires and the work of the forest fire wardens 
further systematized. Examinations of woodland for private 
owners have been made and advice given regarding planting, 
thinning and cutting. In cooperation with the U. S. Forest 
Service a study is being made of the woodworking industries of 



XIV CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II. 

the State, to get if possible a better utilization of home-grown 
woods and give the woodland owner information as to markets 
for his product. 

Chemical Department. 

Analyses and published reports of all commercial fertilizers 
sold in the State, of commercial feeds, and of human food pro- 
ducts and drugs ; examinations of foods and drugs for the Dairy 
and Food Commissioner, and expert evidence in court as 
required ; study of methods of analysis ; and analytical work 
required in connection with field experiments. 

Plant Breeding. 
(Supported by Adams Fund) 
Studies of inheritance of characters in corn and tobacco and 
of the yields of first year corn hybrids. 

Protein Research. 
(Supported by Adams Fund) 
Studies of the composition, structure and relative nutritive 
values of the vegetable proteins. 

The above list of the important parts of the Station work 
illustrates how it covers the whole State and affects the interests 
of all its citizens, v/hether farmers or not. 

Each session of the General Assembly adds to the State's 
requirements of the Station, the calls made by farmers and others 
for the help which it is the object of a Station to give, and 
the natural and inevitable expansion of its work have made the 
Station's income insufficient for its needs. The strictest economy 
will be necessary for the next year, and without a larger income 
than it now has the work which it is doing must thereafter be 
lessened and its working force cut down. For the general 
expenses of the Station no increase of appropriation has been 
made by the State since 1895. 

All of which is respecctfully submitted. 

George A. Hopson, Secretary. 



REPORT OF THE TREASURER, 1911 



E. H. Jenkins, in account with The Connecticut Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1911. 

Receipts. 
Balance on hand, October i, 1910 (State Agricultural 

Appropriation) $1,655.26 

State Appropriation, Agriculture $10,000.00 

State Appropriation, Food 2,500.00 

State Appropriation, Insect Pest 3,000.00 

State Appropriation, Gypsy Moth 4,000.00 

United States Appropriation, Hatch 7,500.00 

United States Appropriation, Adams 7,500.00 

Analysis Fees 12,500.00 

Sale of Farm Products 80.79 

Miscellaneous Receipts 339.8i 

From the Lockwood Estate 16,611.23 

64,031.83 

Total $65,687.09 

Disbursements. 

E. H. Jenkins, director, salary $2,800.00 

E. H. Jenkins, treasurer, " 400.00 

W. H. Brewer, salary 8.34 

G. A. Hopson, " 75.00 

V. E. Cole, " 850.00 

L. M. Brautlecht, " 750.00 

J. P. Street, " 2,500.00 

T. B. Obsorne, " 2,400.00 

E. M. Bailey, " 1,550.00 

C. B. Morrison, " 1,158.34 

R. B. Roe, " 1,093.75 

C. E. Shepard, " 875.00 

W. E. Britton, " 2,000.00 

G. P. Clinton, " 2,200.00 

E. M. Stoddard, " 758.32 

S. N. Spring, " 2,500.00 

W. O. Filley, " 1,030.73 

H. K. Hayes, " 1,125.00 

E. L. Ferry, " 1,033.32 

H. Lange, " 925.00 

V. L. Churchill, " 825.00 

Wm. Veitch, " 675.00 

Luva Francis, " 350.00 



XVI CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9II, 

E. L. Avery, salary $ 390.00 

H. W. Kiley (Labor) 728.00 

Wm. Pokrob " 728.00 

C. D. Hubbell " 728.00 

Geo. Graham " 724.00 

M. H. Jagger "- 499.00 

Jos. Keating " 180.00 

L. Robinson " 475.00 

L. Nolan " 173.00 

Labor 3,842.79 

Publications 1,137.82 

Postage 357.71 

Stationery 709.31 

Telephone and Telegraph 161.69 

Freight and Express 296.30 

Gas, Kerosene and Electricity 545.28 

Coal 1,583.00 

Water 134-44 

Chemicals and Laboratory Supplies 897.82 

Agricultural and Horticultural Supplies 2,567.05 

Miscellaneous Supplies 575-76 

Fertilizers 480.51 

Feeding Stufif s 188.98 

Library and Periodicals 843.58 

Tools and Machinery 334-31 

Furniture and Fixtures 294.00 

Scientific Apparatus 218.02 

Live Stock 11.00 

Traveling by the Board 118.11 

Traveling by the Staff 1,295.91 

Traveling in connection with Adams Fund Investi- 
gations 139.71 

Fertilizer Sampling 231.60 

Food Sampling 249.25 

Insurance 65.80 

Insect Pest Appropriation to State Entomologist .... 3,000.00 

Contingent 572.51 

Lockwood Expenses 400.00 

Gypsy Moth Appropriation to State Entomologist . . . 4,000.00 

New Buildings 396.90 

Betterments 1,035.39 

Repairs 337-14 

Rental of Land 105.00 

Purchase of Land 6,000.00 

$65,634-49 
Analysis Fees on hand Sept. 30, 191 1 52.60 

Total $65,687.09 

UAp'13 



REPORT OF THE TREASURER. XVll 

New Haven, Conn., Nov. 14th, 191 1. 
This is to Certify that we have examined the accounts of E. H. 
Jenkins, Treasurer of The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 
for the year ending Sept. 30th, 191 1, have compared the same with the 
vouchers therefor and found them correct. 

William P. Bailey, 
Edward S. Roberts, 

Auditors of Public Accounts. 



E. H. Jenkins, in account with The Connecticut Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 191 1, 

Receipts and Disbursements in connection with the rebuilding of the 
laboratory building destroyed by fire January 10, 1910. 

Receipts. 

Balance on hand Oct. i, 1910 $141.48 

Salvage 5-89 

$147-37 

Disbursements. 

Fixtures $ 3.05 

Apparatus, Laboratory Supplies and Miscellaneous 22.97 

Part of interest on loan of $6,000 121.35 

$147-37 

This Certifies that we have examined the account which relates to 
loss by fire and rebuilding new building, have compared the same with 
the vouchers therefor and find them correct, the said account being closed 
and balanced by the expenditure of all moneys in the account, same being 
evidenced by vouchers on file and bank book. 

William P. Bailey, 
Edward S. Roberts, 

Auditors of Public Accounts. 



XVlil CONNECTICUT EXPERIMENT STATION REPORT, I9I I. 



ERRATA. 

Page 124, Stollwerck's Milk Cocoa is stated to contain 
glucose. This statement is an error. There is no evidence of 
the presence of glucose' or other adulterant in this brand. 

Page 200, nineteenth line from top, for henzoic read benzoic. 

Page 227, "The Biles' product" mentioned under Dried Dis- 
tillers' Grains refers only to rye grains, the analysis of which is 
given on page 250, and not at all to the other and higher grade 
brands of distillers' grains sold by the Biles Company. 

Page 229. The manufacturers state that Husted's Steam 
Cooked Feed contains only whole and cracked corn and whole 
oats but no wheat. 



